Plato Essay Essay Example for Free

Plato Essay Essay 1. a) Explain how Plato’s epistemological assumptions shape his metaphysics (Why does he think that there must be Forms? Hint: Plato says (in effect): â€Å"Since knowledge is certain, therefore the objects of knowledge must be unchanging. †). b) Define Plato’s Forms and present the theory of Forms by explaining the â€Å"divided line. † (You can use the visual image, but explain it. ) Plato was extremely devoted in answering the sophists’ skepticism about reason and morality. To do so, he spent more time than any philosopher before him studying knowledge, or epistemology. He realized that to answer the sophists’ skepticism he had to first solve the three main problems that earlier philosophers had left behind; the problems of change, the â€Å"one† and the â€Å"many†, and the problem between appearance and reality. Plato started where Heraclitus, who said that everything is changing, and Parmenides, who said that nothing ever changes, left off. He said that both philosophers were correct in their assumptions, for they were talking about different types of objects. Heraclitus is correct in terms of the sensible realm; it obviously exists, and is a flux that conforms to the â€Å"measures† as he suggested. Parmenides was correct in terms of the intelligible realm. Plato thought that beyond the world of physical objects in space and time is another world that is nonphysical, non-spatial, and non-temporal. He called this the world of ideai, or forms. These forms are nonphysical, non-spatial, non-temporal objects of thought that are more real than anything else. Whenever we are thinking, according to Plato, what we are thinking about is a form. For example, a triangle drawn on the board in class, no matter how perfect and real it may appear is merely a copy of the form of triangle; a plane figure enclosed by three straight lines. It is like a triangle and looking at it helps us think of the real triangle, but it only relates, or â€Å"participates† in Plato’s terms, to its’ true form. This theory applies to the entire sensible realm because everything changes and nothing stays exactly what it is. In the world of forms, however, everything is always what it is and never another thing. Plato believed that because the world of forms is Parmenidean, or eternal and unchanging, it is therefore possible for us to know it. To explain his theory of forms in depth, Plato used the image of the â€Å"divided line†. Take a line and divide it into two unequal parts, one part representing the physical world and one representing the world of forms. Then, subdivide these two parts in the same ratio, creating two sub-parts of the physical world (call them A and B) and two of the world of forms (call them C and D). Plato says let the first, or lowest, section of the physical world (A) stand for images, such as shadows or reflections. Let the second section of the physical world (B) stand for the actual objects that cast these shadows, like trees, humans, or desks. In the world of forms, Plato continues, let the first section (C) stand for the lower forms, or the forms of the objects in section B. The second section in the world of forms, the highest section of all, (D) then stands for the higher forms, or the science of first principles; the knowledge that, if possessed, would prove the basic assumptions of the special sciences. Plato believed that the nearer we are to the base of the divided line (A), the more conditioned our knowledge is. We can move up the line through dialectic, a process of questions and answer that utilizes hypothesis, criticism, and revision to move nearer to unconditioned knowledge. The higher we climb via this dialectic, the more we rid ourselves of conditions and the better we grasp the knowledge of the non-material abstract forms (D). According to Plato, these are the forms that possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. 2. a) How does the Form Man explain the existence of the many individual men? b) What is the nature of man and how is the individual man analogous to the state? c) What is virtue or justice in man and in the state? Plato’s theory of Forms led him to many assumptions, one of the most important of which is his view on the form of â€Å"man† and his relation to the state. He understood that no one man has ever been perfect and that each man participates in the form â€Å"man† to different degrees. Individual men are adequate copies of the true form of â€Å"man†. Plato believed that the men who participate in the form more fully are going to more real, and therefore  better, then the men who participate less. This is better explained by his philosophy of the nature of man and his analogous relationship to the state. Plato recognized the nature of man as a psyche, or soul, that was grouped into three main parts. Each of these three parts have motions proper to them that he believed, if harmonized, would lead to eudaimonia, a total well-being. The first, and lowest, part of the soul he called the appetites. The highest part Plato called reason. The third part, between appetite and reason, he called spirit. He saw the state as having three main parts as well, each corresponding to one of the three parts of the human psyche. Every state needs a governing body, whether kings or congress, so this will be the first part. The second is reserved for the essential producing class, which includes merchants, industrial workers, agriculturists, and so on. Third, Plato held that every state needs a group, between the governing and producing classes, to maintain the state against enemies; this is the guardian group. The analogy relates the producing class to appetite in the individual, the governing class to reason, and the guardians to spirit. Plato wasn’t just satisfied with this, he wanted to know the virtues of these classes, in other words, he wanted to know what each could contribute best. Like organs in an organism’s body, Plato believed each part of the soul and state have a particular role to play in the whole; they were not discrete and complete in themselves. He thought that the function of the members of the producing class was to provide themselves and the nonproductive classes with the necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. He realized that if everybody were to be provided for sufficiently, some of the producers would have to put up with having less than others. They would have to be ready to â€Å"restrict one’s own consumption for the sake of achieving some sort of balance in the state as a whole†, thus their virtue is moderation or as Plato called it, temperance (Jones 169). The guardians, who make up the second class, must be courageous when defending the state against its enemies, thus their virtue is courage. The governors make the highest decisions in the state. They determine war or peace, educational and economic policies, and so on. To make correct decisions they require knowledge; this is their virtue. A state in which each class is performing its function is just state. Only when the rulers are making wise decisions that are executed with courage and loyalty by the guardians, and the rest of the population is exercising some restraint in its pursuit of material well being, will the citizens of the state be happy. Since the state’s three classes exactly correspond to the three parts of the soul, we are able to understand what Plato took to be their respective virtues. Just like in the state, every individual has producing part that keeps them â€Å"alive and active, a rational part that is intended to guide and direct the energy produced by the body, and a spirited part that is intended to help keep the body in order† (Jones 169). Just as the functions of the soul correspond to the state, so do its virtues. A virtuous man is temperate in satisfying his various appetites and lives a life of reason that is supported by his spirited elements. 3. a) Use the allegory of the cave to illustrate Plato’s political views. In doing so, you should b) explain how the theory of forms supports Plato’s favored form of Aristocracy (to begin with, recall the relation between individual men and the Form of man) and c) explain how the theory of Forms grounds his criticism and rejection of democracy (where in â€Å"the cave† are the Athenian democrats?where are they on the divided line? ) As we have seen, Plato uses myths and methods such as the divided line to explain his views on certain things; this is the case, too, with his views on politics. To understand these views we must examine his allegory of the cave. He said to imagine there was men in a dark cave that were chained by their necks and ankles in such a fashion that they could not move their legs or necks and could only see what was in front of them. These men had been in this cave since childhood. Higher up behind them is a fire that is separated from the prisoners by a sort of puppet-show screen. This fire and screen were used by people carrying various artificial objects, such as figures of men, animals, and other materials, to project the shadows of these objects onto the stone in front of the chained men. It was so dark that these prisoners had no clue they were not alone and if they spoke to each other, they assumed they were speaking with the projected images. Plato goes on to say, imagine if one of them were set free and forced up the steep ascent into the sunlight. He would realize that what he experienced in the cave was not as real as what actually existed. Nature and the sun would enlighten this man and therefore he would gain true knowledge of the world as it is. Plato reasoned that these men, the ones who make it out of the cave, are the men who should rule the rest. His politics were based on man being a social animal, with desires, not only for sleeping or drinking, but communicating with his fellow men in the community. Therefore, he thought communal life is good and all other human goods depend on it for any sufficient satisfaction; an individual, who is really part of the larger state, is neither complete nor himself in isolation. If the good life for the individual is possible only by community, then there must be some sort of government to give direction to the numbers of men and women who live and work together. Plato believed that the few who are wise and good should rule the many. As his theory of Forms suggests, all men participate to the form of man to different degrees. He thought that the few men who participate at the highest levels of the form, the most knowledgeable that have exited the cave and been enlightened, are the ones best for ruling, and doing so rationally; the many are lacking in knowledge and virtue. Plato favored an Aristocracy ruled by these knowledgeable philosopher-kings who would impose the temperance on the producers through selective education and controlled propaganda. Each person, in his view, would find their happiness by playing the part in the state that their degree of participation to the form of man best suited them for. Plato therefore criticized democracy because instead of philosopher-kings who have true knowledge, the rulers are chosen on irrelevant grounds. The art of ruling, which he thought to determine what is best, became in democracy the art of appealing to the masses with flattery. Plato believed that in a democracy it is impossible to exit the cave or rise to the highest section of the divided line because it is powered by rhetoric. Rhetoric works at the level of opinion and only invokes belief by emotional mean, rather than operating at the level of knowledge, where analyzing the forms allows us to discover the truth.

Strategy Planning and Implementation

Strategy Planning and Implementation Task 1a) The organisation of my choicce in discussing the Strategy Planning and Implementation assignment would be Pantaloon Retail India Limited. The reason behind choosing this organisation as matter of discussion can be mentioned as follows: i) I am an ex-employee of Panataloon Retail India Limited being on the rolls of the company for nearly 4 years overseeing comapanys Marketing Business Operations in the state of Gujarat, India encompassing 5 Pantaloon Retail Lifestyle stores in the cities of Ahmedabad, Baroda, Surat Rajkot in Gujarat. ii) Organised retailing is emerging in Indian sub-continent with Pantaloon Retail India Limited being the forerunner. iii) Started from a humble begiining in late 20th century with single outlet operation today it is Rs.10 billion turnover, with a presence over 30 cities with combination of 500 mega stores, super stores and lifestyle stores with over 20,000 employees. Task 1b) Stakeholders are the persons or a community(group of people) who are directly or indirectly associated with an organisation for attaining its objectives and are directly or indirectly affected by the actions, decisions and policies made by the organisation. Stakeholders of the company are its Directors, Employees, Creditors, Customers, Vendors, Government Agencies, Owners and Shareholders. Hence, in other words all the human entities directly or indirectly associated with the organisation are the stake holders of the organisation. In particular, the major stakeholders of my chosen organisation are the Employees, Customers and Vendors. Retail is man intensive industry and hence the role and importance of team work is the essence of providing international standard experience of shopping to its customers. Customers are king of the retail business. Custmers are listened, obliged, serviced and are given the primary importance in Pantaloon Retail India Limited. It is believed here that if Customers are happy then the company will survive. The company follows the M.K.Gandhis famous qoute, A customer is the most important visitor on our premises, he is not dependent on us. We are dependent on him. He is not an interruption in our work. He is the purpose of it. He is not an outsider in our business. He is part of it. We are not doing him a favor by serving him. He is doing us a favor by giving us an opportunity to do so. Vendors are the blood line of the organisation. Vendors provide the organisation with the right product win desired quantity. The also support the organisation in terms of payback period giving an edge to maintain healthy cash flows for development. Hence, we observe that these stake holders are of considerable importance to the organisation growth and to combat fierce competition and to meet customer satisfaction. The specific considerations that the company has for these stakeholders are as follows: Employees: The employees should be suitably compensated in terms of monetary and other intangible benefits so that the high level of enthusiasm towards work and customer focus is maintained. The happiness and retention of customers can be ensured only with satisfied employees. Customers: As mentioned above, Customer is the key focal point of Pantaloon, hence all the business persepective should be should be suitable oriented towards customer needs and wants. The company consideration would be providing Value for Money experience to its customers and reaching them the products wherever and whenver they want. Vendors: The company considers Vendors as partner for growth. The company has taken measurable steps towards assessing them, procuring procedure, payments and to deal with the grievance. The company has further taken a step ahead by incorporating electronic touch points to minimise the lengthy procedure and ensure time saving. Task 1c)Organised retail is agressive and is becoming challenging every moment. All the strategies formulated in Retail have been centered around the most important entity The Customer. The company has always focussed towards attracting customers, retaining the existing customers and giving customers an experience which would enable to come back again and again. The crieteria that Pantaloon focussed are: 1.Cost: The most challenging factor in todays business. A good earnings to cost ratio would only decide the fate of the retail business. No matter what top-line or bottom line a company desires, Pantaloon has always focussed on Cost Strategy to offer maximum benefit to its Customers. 2. Market Penetration: After opening its various retail formats in the metro cities in India, the company has decided the Cluster Development Strategy viz. 8 city strategy for market penetration. By doing this the company will focus towards only cluster of cities for market reach in step wise manner. 3. New Product Strategy: The company strategy has always been+ based on Ideas to give their customers something new and unique. The company looks to achieve a healthy share of each Rupee spent by the customers. Thus company started from garments retailing has moved into Food Retail, Fast Food and Speciality cuisine, Gaming, Hyper market segment, home products, e-shopping and insurance sector. 4. Square foot sales : The strategic objective of the company is to seek healthy square foot sales in order to maintain good profit margin in terms of attaining healthy top line. 5. Private Brands: One of the most important criteria for attaining strategic management objective is introducing Private Label Brands which would ensure gaining a healthy bottom-line margin. 6. Vendor Strategy: Touch screen single point operation for vendor slection, product identification and payment procedure. The company believes vendors or manufacturers are partners to the business and hence venodr management is key importance to the company. Task 1d) Pantaloon Retail India Limited was formed to deliver organised garment retailing in India. The company wanted to blend fashion with affordability. Due to its fast expansion and growth the garment trader and the dictribution channel(middle man) has also earned huge margins. They are the trader who used to source the material from the manufacturers and used to store and supply the merchandise to Pantloon. There was a sudden demand in raising the margin of the merchandise by the intermediary channel. Pantaloon used to source 80% of their merchandise of reputed brands from these channels. This sudden raise could not have direct implication on the customers as increase in price to the final product would mean losing business. Hence company initially bear this loss. After sometime the comapny wanted to discuss with these intermediate channels for price renegotiation, failing which the supply of the goods were stopped creating a vacuum in the supply. This was affected by poor merchandise and customer complaints which continued for several months till the time the company had done renegotiation with new set of Intermediary channel including contacting the manufacturers directly. Bu this, the company felt the necessity of having their own private brands including manufacturing and aquiring manufacturing set up of few other companies. The company took around 6 months for consolidation exercis e and thereafter Pantaloon relaunched its Retail Stores with nearly 80% of private manufactured merchandise. Task 2) Develop Vision, Mission, Objectives Measures a. For your chosen organisation, list down its ethical, cultural, environmental, social and business objectives. How are these influenced by the current business and economic climate? Pantaloon Retail India Limited with its multi-retail business in various sectors has consolidated its operations under the umbrella concern of Future Group. The company has laid down and oberve the following values to cover its ethical, cultural, environmental, social and business objectives. The values are as below: Ethical i) Respect Humility: Respect for every individual associated in business and be humble to all. This value entails the core people function. The company pays utmost respect, listen and act accordingly to its Customers, Employees and Vendors through various channels. The Senior Management evaluates and acts accordingly on any grievance, comments and suggestions made by Customers, Employees and Vendors. ii) Openness: To be open and receptive for new ideas, knowledge and information. The company has various platform of communication with its people and analyse all the ideas or comments and shares its opinion with the Stakeholders. E.g. the company has Share With Us Book placed in all the retail stores through which a Customer can communicate with the Senior Management. Cultural i) Valuing Nurturing Relationships: To build long-term relationships. Business particularly retail business is strategic in nature. It has complete reliance on Relationship building and nurturing the emotions.It is observed that it requires more money to attract new customers rather that retaining and satisfying new customers. ii) Simplicity Positivity: Simplicity in thought, business and actions. Thinking simple yet positive render positive vibrations in the economy and earn respect from its stakeholders. Environmental i) Flow: To respect and understand universal laws of nature. The company follows the natural way of business and respect and adheres to the rules and policies laid down from time to time. It also acts accordingly keeping in mind the current economic condition and takes steps relevant in order to satisfy needs of its stake holders. Social i) Indianness : Confidence within ourselves and amongst our product. The company respects Indian culture and offer the products that suits Indian households. ii) Adaptability: To be adaptive and flexible to meet new challenges.The only thing that is constant in the Universe is Change. Hence the company is always open to change and modify accordingly its product lines as per the need and demand of the present market. Business Objectives i) Intropsection: Leading to purposeful thinking. The company from time to time does meaningful invigoration of its entire process in order to audit and take any corrective action if any. Based on the outcome the company re-strategise any of its process or function. ii) Leadership: Leadership in thought and idea and its application in business. The comany belives to be Number 1 in whatever business they are and work hard to retain its position. (Source:Pantaloon Retail India Limited website id http://www.pantaloon.com/corporate_state.asp,Dated October 26, 2009) Based on the above, it is clearly observed that Pantaloon Retail India Limited is equipped with broad range of measures to handle stressfull business environment and economic changes that may occur. Specifically, particular change in any macro economic policies are treated with utmost sincerety and needed change is implemented to overcome it. Thus more recently the economic crises has very little effect on Pantaloon, as the company could envisage the problem and taken specific measures to overcome this. The percentage of leased out premises to its its total retail outlet was nearly 65% towards the beginning of year 2008. The companys outflow in rental expenditure was a large sum of money. The company could oversee the challenge of offereing competitive pricing during the era of economic meltdown. Based on the same company started having its own premises by creating a special vehicle Future Capital Holdings which is 100% subsidiary of Pantaloon Retail India Limited. This has brought d own not only the rental outflow but also ensured better offering to customers in terms of competitive pricing as compared to its competitors.

Julius Caesar Essay: Reaching from the Grave -- Julius Caesar Essays

Reaching from the Grave of Julius Caesar It is assumed that the title of a work should reflect the nature of its content. The title should relate to the to the central influence which controls the flow of the work. Shakespeare's Julius Caesar seems to contradict that convention. Caesar meets his bloody end at the hands of conspirators in the first scene of Act III, barely halfway through the play. He is not the tragic hero; that distinction lies with Brutus and Cassius, around whom the play revolves before and after the assassination. This essay will show that although Caesar is not the hero of this tragedy, he certainly is the title character. Like the storm in the first scene of The Tempest, Caesar's victory over Pompey at the beginning of Julius Caesar sets the workings of the plot into motion. The plebians and senators become increasingly separated in their loyalties. In a time of brutal civil war, the plebians feel they need a single strong ruler such as Caesar. The senators, on the other hand, fear that he might become ambitious and continue killing off his competition, i.e., the senators themselves. At the celebration of Caesar's victory, Brutus remarks, "What means this shouting? I do fear the people choose Caesar for their king" (I.ii.78-79). Cassius turns bitter towards Caesar, because he thinks Caesar is physically weak, and deserves none of the praise that the public heaps upon him. Very early on, Cassius mistrusts Caesar, and becomes just as ambitious himself as he fears Caesar to be. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world Like a Colossus, and we petty men Walk under his huge legs and peep about To find ourselves dishonorable graves. Men at some time... ...art mighty yet! Thy spirit walks abroad, and turns our swords in our own proper entrails" (V.iii.94-96). Scene v shows Brutus finally giving in and joining his fellow senators in death, unable to bear the grief of their loss nor the guilt at killing Caesar in the first place. Thus Caesar, though dead and physically gone, remains a powerful presence throughout the second half of the play. The guilt that he inspires in the conspirators, and the vengeance he stirs up among the plebians, force the play to its tragic conclusion. This is the only way that Julius Caesar can remain the title character, by maintaining a powerful influence throughout the play, whether dead or alive. Shakespeare called the play Julius Caesar not because Caesar is the tragic hero, but because it is Caesar's ambition, his downfall, and his presence after death which cause the tragedy to occur.

gatwomen gatmyrtle Great Gatsby Essays: Similarities of Gatsby and Myrtle :: Great Gatsby Essays

Same Goal, Different Route in The Great Gatsby A more thorough investigation of The Great Gatsby is necessary to uncover a well-disguised theme by Fitzgerald in this work. Upon a simple read through one would probably not notice the great similarities of Jay Gatsby and Myrtle Wilson, but the two characters seemed to have the same agenda for their lives. While Gatsby took the route of acquiring money at all costs to join the upper class of society and to be acceptable in the eyes of a woman, Myrtle chose to make her way up in society at the cost of her marriage by attaching herself to money. The underlying question is who had the most success. As a young man, Jay Gatsby was poor with nothing but his love for Daisy. He had attempted to woe her, but a stronger attraction to money led her to marry another man. This did not stop Gatsby’s goal of winning this woman for himself though, and he decided to improve his life anyway he could until he could measure up to Daisy’s standards. He eventually gained connections in what would seem to be the wrong places, but these gave him the opportunity he needed to "get rich quick." Gatsby’s enormous desire for Daisy controlled his life to the point that he did not even question the immorality of the dealings that he involved himself in to acquire wealth. Eventually though, he was able to afford a "castle" in a location where he could pursue Daisy effectively. His life ambition had successfully moved him to the top of the "new money" class of society, but he lacked the education of how to promote his wealth properly. Despite the way that Gatsby flaunted his money, he did catch Daisy’s attention. A chaotic affair followed for a while until Daisy was overcome by pressures from Gatsby to leave her husband and by the realization that she belonged to "old money" and a more proper society. Myrtle eventually had similar goals as Gatsby, but her life did not begin the same way. She was of the lower class of society and married a simple man. The two pursued a poor life, but Myrtle’s husband George was a decent man. Nevertheless, Myrtle became unsatisfied, and when the opportunity arose to better the quality of her life, she took it. Daisy’s husband Tom, an unfaithful, rough man not very committed to his marriage, began an affair with Myrtle.

Sex in Advertising :: Papers Media Ads Sex Appeal Essays

Sex is everywhere in our society. It is on TV, magazines, radio, billboards, and basically anywhere you look today. People cannot get away from sex in advertising because so many companies use it. Sex appeals are used in advertising all the time, and people love to look at it because 'Sometimes people listen better with their eyes' (Steel 137). Sex in advertising is an effective technique that is used today. It helps companies successfully sell their product in our market. Of course it has to be directed at the right audience, and sold at the right places in order for it to work. Sex in advertising has been around for many years now. Ever since the Maidenform fantasy over twenty years ago. Here is a great example of sex in advertising. It showed women in their Maidenform bras and had different schemes to each one. Maidenform were showing that if they wore this bra and look sexy they could be successful in their jobs and get out of the house. Basically these ads made women feel sexy, and more confident about their bodies. Quit being just a housewife, which many of them were back then. It was now ?The Maidenform Women. You never know where she?ll turn up? (Moog 109). The Maidenform bra ads symbolized the exciting but frustrating longings of the past (Moog 109). Of course this brought some controversy, but when you are dealing with sex appeal in your ads it?s kind of an automatic. That was then, what about now? There are many companies that use sex appeal in their ads today. For instance Victoria Secrets is one of the top sellers in lingerie. They show skin in every one of their ads. All of their models put on the sex appeal for all commercials and magazines. That is what helps them sell. Women look at those ads and see those girls floating on clouds like angels and feel they could feel the same if they wore that purple bra or red underwear. By showing these girls constantly looking sexy in their ads make women feel sexy just wearing them. That is the whole point of using sex in your ads. It?s amazing what a little skin can do. "In advertising, sex sells. But only if you're selling sex (Richards).

The Hollow Men Analysis

â€Å"We are the Hollow Men, We are the stuffed men† In this poem by T. S. Elliot, he uses symbolism, mixed with a quick tempo at the beginning, moving to a slower one at the end to describe how a man’s life generally goes by. In the early stages of a man’s life, he is constantly being filled with information and qualities that society deems necessary and desirable. He will spend no time dwelling on the innermost insecurities that we, as humans, all have. He is a Hollow Man. As we go through the motions of life, we rarely spend time in our early years to contemplate and delve into the insecurities and emotions, the thoughts and feelings that make us who we are. We are content being ignorant to the deeper things; the things that make us think about the greater workings of the Universe, and the smaller workings of ourselves. We know those things exist; we simply don’t want to hear them, because, as we’ve all heard at one time or another, ignorance is bliss. â€Å"Eyes I dare not meet in dreams† As we move further into the journey of life, we begin to understand that something is missing. We begin to come to the realization that there are things about ourselves we don’t want to know. We are ashamed that we have gone this long, and have not sought out the greater meaning we inherently know is there. We know we’ve done wrong, but don’t want to face it. We fear what we will discover about ourselves. It is easier to look in a mirror and see your reflection just as being your reflection, and not contemplate the person you see. It is easy to say â€Å"This person has blonde hair, blue eyes, and pale skin. † It is difficult to say â€Å"This person has feelings, beliefs, insecurities, and a deeper meaning. â€Å"At the hour when we are Trembling with tenderness Lips that would kiss Form prayers to broken stone. † This stanza represents how at the end, we know that our lives of passion, where we have done nothing for a greater purpose than for our own personal comfort and entertainment, were insignificant. We know, maybe for the first time, that there was more to living than just existing. We know that we are nothing, and that we have nothing. We know that we are coming to the end, and we are willing to do anything to keep that end from coming. We pray, and beg, and plead, just wanting a chance to have done something truly worthwhile. â€Å"This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends Not with a bang, but a whimper. † When that final end comes, it will not be in some grand event of chaos and hellfire, It will be much worse. It will be a personal revelation that what you have done did not matter. It will come as a quiet, internal battle, with nobody there to console you but yourself. You will have to face your life with a new sense of understanding that only comes with the end.

The Destructive Cross-Examination of Socrates

Socrates spent most of his life in Athens. During his life he witnessed the rise and glory of Athens and the rapid decline of Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Socrates met and talked with a variety of people such as politicians, statesmen, sophists, poets, architects, and ordinary citizens. He taught philosophy to the youth of Athens, devoted friends, and pupils like Crito. Plato was one of Socrates’ students, and he is considered to be most brilliant student of Socrates. In fact, Plato is the major source of knowledge about Socrates’ life.Socrates questioned and cross-examined Athenians about their moral, religious, and political beliefs. People found it difficult to understand him. His habits were strange, and his arguments were hard to understand. Socrates created a revolution in Greek philosophy. Plato portrayed this revolution in Defence of Socrates, Euthyphro, and Crito. Socratic Method is characterized by asking questions. When Socrates talks, he asks the que stions all the time. He teaches and refutes with questions. He talks to people with questions.The central element that upset the Athenians was the destructive cross-examination of the principles and beliefs that Athenians lived by, which consequently led to Socrates’ death because his contemporaries did not want to admit their own ignorance. Socrates was searching for the meaning of things; he wanted proof of what was defined which would give logical reason for itself. The fact that really hurt Athenians was the attack of the most fundamental principles of Athenian life. Socrates did not recruit people to follow him; rather he went out and asked them their views.His lectures were not characterized by forcing his ideas onto other people. The individuals brought their point of views on particular subject in dialogues set up by Socrates. Socrates’ way of testing or challenging a belief is by seeing what believer is committed to. A man, who makes a statement, especially in debate with Socrates, must be careful what he claims to know. One of the examples is a dialogue between Euthyphro and Socrates. They both have pending lawsuits. Socrates is accused of impiety, and Euthyphro is going to prosecute his own father.Euthyphro’s father is charged with killing a day-laborer. According to Euthyphro his actions to prosecute his father is a model for piety. It doesn’t matter if the guilty one is a relative or a stranger, murder is murder. Euthyphro justified his actions by saying that he knows what holy or unholy is. Socrates wants to know what is holy or unholy since he was accused of impiety, and it seems that Euthyphro has exact knowledge of religion. The discussion between Socrates and Euthyphro illustrate an alternative approach to answer.Euthyphro’s answer to what is holy is in a form that lists individual actions. Socrates presents the questions that are mutually exclusive. For example,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦is the holy loved by the gods be cause it is holy? Or is it holy because it is loved? † He asks plenty of questions like that. Euthyphro (the respondent) has to make a choice between the alternatives presented. Socrates accepts what is a false answer to his question. The dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphro demonstrated the untruth. The definition of holy was not discovered. This cross examination made Euthyphro very uncomfortable.As Socrates demonstrated, Euthyphro did not have exact knowledge of religion and what holy or unholy is. If Euthyphro, who is professionally devoted to religion, cannot produce an adequate answer or some valid criterion of holy, it is hardly to be expected that Athenian citizens will provide intelligent answers to such questions. Socrates was charged with irreligion, impiety, and corruption of youth. The Defence of Socrates is divided into three speeches. The opening is the criticism of the peroration in the court, and Socrates is carried away by the speeches of his accusers. His defense is based on the word â€Å"truth. At the beginning of the speech he makes it clear that he is interested only in truth: â€Å"†¦ my accusers have said little or nothing true; whereas from me you shall hear the whole truth†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The speeches in court generally have no relation to truth. The speakers aim to persuade others in believing what the speaker is saying. Socrates is compelled to make speech in court to defend himself. Socrates replaces the speech that is common in Athenian courts and exercises his own kind of cross-examination, whenever law permits him to do so. He proceeds according to his method of examining by questions and answers.Also, he wishes to converse with judges for more than one day and perhaps convince them that his accusers are wrong. Socrates acquired a bad reputation because he has some special wisdom as his accusers are saying. This is based on the account of Chaerephon, Socrates’ friend. Chaerephon asked the Delphic oracle who is the wisest. The oracle’s answer was that Socrates is the wisest. When Socrates heard the story, he was perplexed how this possibly could be the truth. Socrates went and questioned poets, craftsman, and politicians. He made enemies for himself during his quest for wisdom. Socrates realized and †¦formed opinion that, although the man thought to be wise by many other people, and especially himself, yet in reality he was not. † Through this process Socrates came to conclusion that only god is truly wise, and Socrates’ wisdom is worth nothing. With this confession Socrates sets up tension against the absurd charge of impiety. For Socrates, piety refers to his mission based on the conviction that he and others are ignorant. Socrates exposed through examination the ignorance of others. They claimed they knew something, when in fact they did not know anything. Socrates made people think and find the truth.Once they were exposed to Socrates questioning, they real ized they were ignorant and no truth was found. Because Athenians had a reputation to protect, they brought absurd charges against him. Next, the whole populations of Athens, the judges, the members of the Assembly are claiming to be educators, except Socrates. This absurd exaggeration expresses the sophistic relativism and is ironic, since Socrates is accused of being a sophist. We must make a clear distinction between the two. First, sophists charged fees for their services, next sophists in Athens were not citizens and they traveled throughout the Greek world.Finally, the sophist would use or find the argument that worked the best and did not care whether they uncovered the truth. Socrates did not charge fees, was an Athenian citizen, and believed in uncovering the truth. Additionally, there is another absurdity concealed in Socrates’ indictment. Socrates asks Meletos if he is corrupting youth intentionally or unintentionally. Meletos replies without hesitation-intentional ly. Socrates said that his wrongdoing is impossible. If Socrates is so stupid that he does not realize that he harms other, then he must do it unintentionally.Also, Socrates makes a clever remark towards Meletus: â€Å"Are you so much smarter at your age than mine as to realize that the bad have a harmful impact upon their closest companions at any given time, whereas the good have a beneficial effect? † Socrates explains that if he is corrupting youth he must do it unintentionally, and according to the law he should not be brought to court based on such a mistake. To add, he explains other reasons why alleged corruption of youth might be happening. Since all others are teachers of the youth, they should teach the youth justice and what is right.Evidently, they failed to do so, since Socrates has so many loyal followers. Finally, there is Socrates’ defense against the charge that he does not honor gods. According to Socrates, this charge is too vague. He asked his accu ser to make the point more precisely and explain it. Socrates begins to ask Meletos a series of questions. One of the Meletus’ charges is that Socrates does not acknowledge gods and claims that the sun and the moon are made of rocks. Socrates exclaims that this is mistaken identity. It is Anaxagoras of Clazomenae who made such a claim in his books which you can get anywhere for a cheap price.Socrates makes another clever remark that he does not believe that members of jury are illiterate and therefore they should know that Meletus’ charge is absurd. Furthermore, Socrates questioned Meletus and came to conclusion that according to Meletus, Socrates believes in some sort of spiritual being. Socrates ends with the question: â€Å" How could you possibly persuade anyone with even slightest intelligence that someone who accepts spiritual beings does not also accepts divine ones, and again that the same person also accepts neither spirits nor gods nor heroes? Socrates refut ed the charge of impiety by showing through questioning, that he could not be a despiser of gods since he believes in spiritual beings and descendants of gods. Socrates exposed Meletos self-contradiction, ignorance, and ignorance of the judges and jury, since they allowed charges to be brought to the court. In addition, Socrates takes unmistakable delight in the process of uncovering one’s ignorance. Following the custom, Socrates must propose the proper penalty for himself. Socrates considers a variety of punishments. He examined his own life.He believed that he fulfilled the duty towards the whole community by examining others and himself and did not wrong anybody. The exile would not be appropriate punishment. Socrates proposes that his penalty should be free meals, since he is doing a good thing in Athens. Socrates stands his ground as is portrayed in the third part of his speech. He accepts his death penalty, but also he warns his executioners that putting people to deat h will not prevent anyone from living unjustly and in ignorance. Socrates is convinced that his philosophical life of examining his own and other Athenians beliefs and actions is his duty.He does not fear death. He does not know if death is good or bad. Socrates warns Athenians not to value wealth, power, and prestige more than moral excellence. The moral excellence is the best possible state of one’s soul. Socrates commitment to reasoned argument is evident in Crito. There, in conversation with Crito, Socrates justifies his decision to remain in prison. Crito listed the reasons why Socrates should escape. First, Crito does not want to lose a friend, next what will other think that Crito doesn’t want to make sacrifice for his friend.Socrates begins with the reply that he must follow the logic: â€Å"I cannot reject the very principle that I previously adopted, just because this fate has overtaken me; rather they appeared to me much the same as ever, and I respect and honor the same ones that I did before. † This principle is within him and appears to be the best, regardless of situation. Additionally, Socrates examined his own morality. For Socrates, the greatest good is to be prudent and evil is to be imprudent. Prudence is the ability to act by use of reason and allows to distinguish when acts are reckless, cowardly or courageous.Socrates, also examined other of his principles such as not to do injustice, not to do bad things to other human beings, obey the laws of Athens, which he voluntary accepted. Yet again through the questioning of his own principles and in dialogue with Crito, Socrates comes to conclusion, that one shouldn’t care what other people think, but think what is just or unjust. If Socrates would escape, he would violate the sacred laws of Athens. The escape would be unjust. Socrates reasoned that if he would escape, the life time of his work would be destroyed.He dedicated his life to justice, to the state, and th e law. Socrates must confirm his teachings trough his actions. On the whole, Socrates during his lifetime pursued the truth. For Socrates, the truth was the only moral anchor in uncertain world. His method was direct. He asked questions in dialogues with anyone who would engage in conversation. This dialectic process was a purifying process. Similar to water filter, removing all the scum and sediment until results were pure. Socrates revealed through this process what is untruth.For Socrates, the inner truth is covered by the layers of untruth, and he tried to peel them away. This method is also known as negative method-eliminate what leads to contradiction. Socrates forced his contemporaries to re-evaluate, reflect and reconsider their beliefs. He did this in the ways that left people with uncertainty, in the state of unease, and realization of their own ignorance (but not admitting to it) as Plato portrayed in Euthyphro, Crito and Defence of Socrates. Furthermore, the Oracle of De lphi response to Chaerephon, who is the wisest man, provided Socrates with insights to education.The most powerful motivation to learning is acknowledgment of own ignorance. Next, Socratic Method seeks to find universal definition. Socrates believed that all things have something essential within them which can be uncovered by reason. The essential properties can be summarized in definition. For example, he seeks to find the definition what is holy or unholy in Euthyphro. The results of Socrates enquires in search for truth, knowledge, and wisdom through cross-examination, led to his death, because his contemporaries did not to want admit their own ignorance.